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SLA Experts

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YOU ARE AN SLA EXPERT!

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HOW TO PLAY

by: Stephanie Bruno, Christopher Di Chiaro, Amelia Iatros, & Sima Meghdadi

Define learner agency.

Which of the following is NOT TRUE of interlanguage?

1. Interlanguage shows characteristics of the L1, but not the L2
2. Interlanguage shows characteristics of both the L1 and L2
3. Interlanguage is the emergent language of L2 learners

Mental health vector illustration [digital]. gettyimages. https://www.gettyimages.ca/ What theory of language assumes all natural languages share a set of underlying principles and constraints and derive from an innate language faculty?

Universal grammar is a big influence on what approach made famous by linguist Noam Chomsky?

What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)?

What are the three key concepts of the interaction approach?

TRUE OR FALSE: Kirschner (2017) provided evidence for “matching” between learning styles and input of task modality. In other words, learning styles exist.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and what SLA theory does it relate to?

What is integrative motivation?

Grammaticality Judgement Tests (GJT) used to evaluate a learner’s grammatical inferencing, is used by which of the following SLA theories?

1. Functional approach
2. Processability theory
3. Universal grammar
4. All of the above

Name four types of corrective feedback.

What is the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)?

Ethnography is both a methodology and a method. It can be used as a way to investigate and study culture. Name two methods of collecting data.

What is the critical age for “later immersion language learners?"

What is instrumental motivation?

What are the three phases of development in Skill Acquisition Theory?

How can motivation in the classroom fluctuate over a short period of time?

Name the three phases in Zoltán Dörnyei’s (2001) process-oriented model of motivation.

According to the functional approach, the one-to-one principle dictates that interlanguage systems should… A) Have multiple forms to express the same meaning B) Have a single form to express a single meaning C) Have a single form to express multiple meanings D) None of the above

What are the two main contributors that influence a learner’s willingness to communicate (WTC) and communicative confidence?

What is simultaneous bilingualism?

Which of the following theories provides insight into observation 4: Learners’ output often follows predictable paths with predictable stages in the acquisition of a given structure? A) Universal grammar B) Functional approach C) Interaction approach D) All of the above

Name three factors that can influence L2 developmental sequences.

What is meant by ‘automaticity’ in an L2 context?

Why are pragmatics important? What can happen if you are not aware of them?

What is meant by aptitude and what are some ways of measuring it?

What are some examples of extraneous variables that have the capacity to affect a learner’s test outcome?

Which of the following theories provides insight into observation 1: Exposure to input is necessary for L2 acquisition? A) Functional approach B) Interaction approach C) Universal grammar D) A and C E) B and C

Complete the following sentence: “Regardless of aptitude profile, L2 learners tend to generally benefit from _________ _________ _________ instruction followed by practice” (dela Cruz, 2022, Slide 29). Options:

1. Inductive, implicit pattern-based
2. Deductive, explicit rule-based
3. Huh?

With the accessibility hierarchy in mind, place the following parts of speech from most to least accessible.

• Object of comparison – The house that was smaller than this one is located in Pittsburgh.
• Subject – The boy who danced was an enemy of mine.
• Indirect object – The girl to whom he sent the love note cried of happiness.
• Possessive – She knows the man whose house burnt down.

What is the difference between inter and intra-sentential code-switching?

Learner agency is defined as: “the ability to make choices, to pursue individual goals, and to provide input into their learning experience” (dela Cruz, 2022a, Slide 10) dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022a). L2 Acquisition: Investment, identity, agency; Learning“styles”...?. [PowerPoint slides].

Universal Grammar Theory

A) Interlanguage shows characteristics of the L1, but not the L2 Interlanguage shows characteristics of both the L1 and L2, and is the emergent language of L2 learners. Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2020). One functional approach to l2 acquisition: The concept-oriented approach. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 19-39). Taylor & Francis Group.

The Innatist approach. Noam Chomsky argued that “innate knowledge of the principles of universal grammar permits all children to acquire the language of their environment during a critical period of their development.” (Lightbown & Spada, 2021) Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

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The proposal that for reasons of biological maturation, language acquisition becomes more difficult and/or less complete after a certain age. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. M. (2021). How languages are learned (5th edition). Oxford University Press.

Input, Feedback, and Output. According to Gass and Mackey (2020), the interaction approach attempts to account for the learner's exposure to language (input), production of language (output), and feedback on the production (feedback) (p.194). Gass, S.M., & Mackey, A. (2020). Input, interaction, and output in L2 acquisition. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 192-222).

FALSE. There is no existing evidence for “matching” between learning styles and input of task modality (dela Cruz, 2022a, Slide 18). In fact, Lightbown & Spada (2021) state that “research has not found strong evidence for the value of “teaching to” learning styles, or even clear evidence that they exist in any neurologically meaningful way” (p.82). dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022a). L2 Acquisition: Investment, identity, agency; Learning“styles”...?. [PowerPoint slides]. Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

ZPD = The distance between the level of actual development and the level of potential development. This relates to the ‘Sociocultural Theory’. dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). SLA Theories: So now what? Theoretical Limitations and Pedagogical Applications. [PowerPoint].

The desire to know more about the culture and community of the target language group and even a desire to be more like members of that group. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. M. (2021). How languages are learned (5th edition). Oxford University Press.

C) Universal grammar GJTs provide evidence for UG. The idea is that learners come to know more than they have been exposed to through input. If a learner can determine the grammaticality of completely new utterances that they have never been exposed to, UG is at play. White, L. (2020). Linguistic theory, universal grammar, and second language acquisition. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 19-39). Taylor & Francis Group.

(Any four out of the six): Lyster and Ranta (1997) have identified 6 types of corrective feedback in the classroom (p.120-121). They are:

1. Explicit correction: refers to the explicit provision of the correct form or utterance.
2. Recasts: involves a teacher’s reformulation of a student’s utterance, while omitting the error.
3. Clarification requests: includes phrases such as “pardon me?” and “what do you mean by…?”
4. Metalinguistic feedback: refers to comments, information, or questions related to the correctness of students’ utterance.
5. Elicitation: refers to a technique used by teachers to elicit the correct form from students
6. Repetition: refers to the teacher’s repetition of a students’ erroneous utterance.

Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1). 37-61.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis is “the idea that learners’ errors resulted from ‘interference’ from their L1” (Lightbown & Spada, 2021). Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Any two of the following is sufficient:

• field notes
• interviews
• surveys
• questionnaires
• collecting linguistic artifacts (letters, text messages, writing examples)(dela Cruz, 2022c, Slide 11)

dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022c). The classroom as research site: Instructional setting, observations, ethnography, feedback types. [PowerPoint slides].

19. A reanalysis of data drawn by Hartshorne, Tenenbaum, and Pinker (2018) show that the critical age of immersion learners is 19 years old (Hartshorne, Tenenbaum, & Pinker, 2018, as cited in dela Cruz, 2022b, Slide 5). dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022b). L2 Acquisition: Itʼs about time...? + SLA theoretical paradigms. [PowerPoint slides].

Language learning for immediate practice or goals (for example, wanting to learn a language for a specific job). Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. M. (2021). How languages are learned (5th edition). Oxford University Press.

They are:

1. Declarative knowledge: A learner acquires knowledge about a skill (often through verbal transmission). This is acquired through perceptive observation and analysis of others engaged in the skill.
2. Proceduralization: this consists of converting declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge through practice.
3. Automatization: sometimes called overlearning, it is when a learner has achieved mastery over the task or skill.

DeKeyser, R. (2020). Skill acquisition theory. In Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 83-104). Routledge.

Answers may vary - some examples: Highly motivated students can feel demotivated after an extended grammatical explanation, unmotivated students can suddenly became engaged in a novel task (Waninge, Dörnyei. & De Bot, 2014, as cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2021, p.81). Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. Waninge, F., Dörnyei. Z., & De Bot, K. (2014). Motivational dynamics in language learning:Change,stability, and context. The Modern Language Journal, 93(3), 704-723.

Zoltán Dörnyei’s model consisted of three phases:

1. Choice Motivation refers to getting started and setting goals,
2. Executive Motivation is about carrying out the necessary tasks to maintain motivation
3. Motivation Retrospection refers to students’ appraisal of and reaction to their performance.

(Dörnyei, 2001, as cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2021, p.79) Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

B) Have a single form to express a single meaning According to the functional approach, the initial stage of a learner’s interlanguage is characterized by the one-to-one approach where a single form expresses a single meaning. For example, consider the expression of the future and the present progressive tense. The present progressive tense has the main function of expressing a current ongoing action. It is only in a later stage that learners might use the present progressive in the future to express future actions Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2020). One functional approach to l2 acquisition: The concept-oriented approach. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 19-39). Taylor & Francis Group.

Studies have shown that a relationship exists between anxiety and WTC. According to these studies, learners who willingly communicate do so because of their communicative confidence. This is shaped by: how relaxed L2 learners are and how competent (or incompetent) they feel about their L2 ability (Clément, Baker, & MacIntyre, 2003, as cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2021, p. 78) Clément, R., Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norms, and vitality. Journal of language and social psychology, 22(2), 190-209.

When a child is exposed to more than one language at the same time from birth. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. M. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

B) Functional approach According to the functional approach, a form that conveys only one meaning is more likely to be acquired than that which can be conveyed by a previously learned form (e.g. the present perfect tense vs. the past perfect tense, which can be ultimately replaced by the simple past tense). One functional approach to l2 acquisition: The concept-oriented approach. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 19-39). Taylor & Francis Group.

Possible answers: Salience, complexity, semantic transparency, L1-L2 similarity, frequency in L2 input, markedness. dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Developmental sequences; Syntax Vocabulary, Pragmatics. [PowerPoint slides].

Automaticity refers to the idea that something has been repeated so many times, e.g., a verb tense, that making use of it has become natural and automatic. Think of the analogy given in class: being able to walk around your apartment with all the lights turned off–it’s so easy and simple for us to do because of how familiar we are with our setting. dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Cognitivist, Sociocultural, and Complex Dynamic Approaches. [PowerPoint slides].

Pragmatics are important because being unaware of them can cause us to misunderstand the people with whom we are speaking. As has been stated in class, “successful communication involves certain speech acts” (Wayne, 2022, Slide 39), for example sarcasm, which is quite prevalent in English. Also, it’s possible for a language learner to come across as rude if they lack familiarity with them. dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Developmental sequences; Syntax Vocabulary, Pragmatics. [PowerPoint slides].

Aptitude refers to the ease and speed with which a learner is able to acquire the L2. The following are some of the ways in which it can be measured:

1. Grammatical inferencing
2. Sound recognition; sound-symbol association
3. Rote memory (memorization via repetition)
4. Working memory e.g., learning new words

dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Pronunciation; Individual Differences. [PowerPoint slides].

The following are some examples:

1. Anxiety
2. Amount of time spent studying
3. Sleep
4. Hunger

dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Pronunciation; Individual Differences. [PowerPoint slides].

E) B (interaction approach) and C (universal grammar) In UG, input is needed to trigger UG. In the interaction approach, input is absolutely necessary for L2 acquisition, however it places a greater focus on how a learner interacts with the input (quality vs quantity). Gass, S.M., & Mackey, A. (2020). Input, interaction, and output in l2 acquisition. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 19-39). Taylor & Francis Group. White, L. (2020). Linguistic theory, universal grammar, and second language acquisition. In VanPatten, B., Keating, G. D., & Wulff, S. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 19-39). Taylor & Francis Group.

B) Deductive, explicit rule-based “Regardless of aptitude profile, L2 learners tend to generally benefit from deductive, explicit rule-based instruction followed by practice” (Wayne, 2022, Slide 29). dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Pronunciation; Individual Differences. [PowerPoint slides].

Subject, indirect object, possessive, object of comparison dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Developmental sequences; Syntax Vocabulary, Pragmatics. [PowerPoint slides].

Intra-sentential is when you switch languages in the middle of a clause, and inter is when it’s done once a clause has ended. These are typically done with no pauses or any kind of hesitation. dela Cruz, J. W. N. (2022). L2 Acquisition: Interlanguage, CLI, Errors. [PowerPoint slides].

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how to play

This game is made for 2-4 players, but you can play it alone just to test your knowledge and review some of the course concepts if you'd like!

1. Players choose a token that they like.
2. Roll the dice.
3. Click on the number of the box you are supposed to land on (don't move your piece just yet) and answer the question, depending on your result you may do one of the following:
1. If you answer correctly, you may move your token to that box
2. If you answer incorrectly, you cannot move forward
3. If someone had already answered that question correctly on the same spot, roll again.
4. BEWARE: certain boxes have either rewards or traps!
4. If your roll would land you on a star space ( ), move to that space, and follow the action indicated on that space.
5. The player who reaches the end of board first, WINS and is crowned the SLA Expert and has bragging rights.

RULES

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