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Language Processing and The Human Brain
danlyz.dlom
Created on September 29, 2022
Language Processing and The Human Brain 430-446
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Transcript
Comprehension
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Syntactic Processing
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Speech Production
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The Human Mind at Work
Language Processing and The Human Brain
The Speech Signal
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Speech Perception
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Bottom-up and Top-down Models
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Lexical Access and Word Recognition
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Daniela lIZETH oRTÍZ MARTÍNEZ28.09.2022
Lexical Selection
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Application and Misapplication of Rules
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Planning Units
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Understanding a sentence involves analysis at many levels. =>To understand the individual speech sounds we hear, it can be helpful to have some knowledge of the signal. Speech sounds can be described in physical or acoustic terms:
- Physically: a sound is produced whenever there is a disturbance of air molecules. There are sounds we cannot hear because our ears are not sensitive to the full range of frequencies.
- Acoustic phonetics: concerned with speech sounds, all of which can be heard by the normal human ear.
- Fundamental frequency of the sounds: perceived by the hearer as a pitch.
- Harmonics: a special frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental frequency.
- Intensity: determines the loudness of the sound.
- Quality of the speech sound: determined by the shape of the vocal tract when air is flowing through it.
Speech is a continuous signal. In natural speech, sounds overlap and influence each other. A central problem of speech perception:
- Segmentation problem: explain how listeners carve up the continuous speech signal into meaningful units. Words and syntactic units are seldom surrounded by boundaries, such as pauses, and words are units of perception.
- Lack of invariance problem: understand how the listener manages to recognize particular speech sounds when they are spoken by different people and when they occur in different contexts.
- Categorical perception: speakers perceive physically distinct stimuli as belonging to the same category because their perception are assisted by knowledge of the underlying classificatory system.
Language comprehension is very fast and automatic. We can process spoken language at a rate of around twenty phonemes per second.
- Parallel processing: successful language comprehension that requires a lot of operation taking place at once.
- Bottom-up processing: moves step-by-step from the incoming acoustic signal, to phonemes, morphemes, words and phrases, and to semantic interpretation.
- Top-down processing: the listener relies on higher-level semantic, syntactic, and contextual information to analyze the acoustic signal.
Semantically related words are activated or primed during lexical retrieval. Word substitutions: are seldom random, they show that in our attempt to express our thoughts, we may make an incorrect lexical selection based on partial similarity or relatedness of meanings. Blends: in which we produce part of one word and part of another, illustrate how we may select two or more words to express our thoughts and instead of deciding between them, we produce them as "portmanteaus".
- In comprehension: lexical retrieval is affected by the number of words that are phonologically related to the target.
- In production: speakers often make speech errors involving the substitution of a word that is phonologically related to the target but unrelated in meaning.
Spontaneous errors show that the rules of morphology and syntax are also applied (or misapplied) when we speak. Errors may also involve inflectional rules. We also see evidence of the order of application of morphophonemic rules in production. Consider the a/an alteration rule.
Sounds within words and words within sentences are linearly ordered, speech errors, or slips of the tongue show that the prearticulation stages involve units larger than the single phonemic segment or even the word.
- Spoonerism:
- Syntactic structures: exist independently of the words that occupy them.
- Intonation contours: can be mapped without being associated with particular words.
Understanding a sentence involves recognizing its individual words. The listener must determine the syntactic relations among the words and phrases. This mental process (parsing), is governed by the rules of the grammar and influenced by the sequential nature of language. Listeners build a structural representation of a sentence as they hear it. They must decide for each incoming word what is grammatical category is and how it fits into the structure. Often sentences present "temporary ambiguities" such as a word or words that belong to more than one syntactic category. Sophisticated laboratory procedures that track the reader's eye movements can pinpoint difficult regions of the sentence and can see when the reader regresses to an earlier part of the sentence. Sentences that induce this backtracking effect are called garden path sentences. The initial structural choices that lead people astray may reflect general principles that are used by the mental parser to deal with syntactic ambiguity. Principles:
- Minimal attachment: build the simplest structure consistent with the grammar of the language.
- Late closure: attach incoming material to the phrase that is being processed.
Psycholinguists have conducted a great deal of research on lexical access or word recognition, the process by which we obtain information about the meaning and syntactic properties of a word from our mental lexicon. Different techniques in studies of lexical access:
- Ask whether a string of letters or sounds is or isn't a word. Subjects must respond by pressing one button if the stimulus is an actual word, and a different button if it isn't, so they are making a lexical decision.
- Neighborhood: compromised of all the words that are phonologically similar to the target word.
- Semantic priming: words can be activated by hearing semantically related words.
- Morphological priming: a morpheme of a multimorphemic sword primes a related word.
- The listener's job: decode the intended meaning of a message from the speech signal produced by a speaker.
- The speaker's job: encode an idea into an utterance using speech sounds and words, organized according to the grammatical structures of the language.
The different kinds of breakdowns in performance, such as tip of the tongue phenomena, speech errors, and failure to comprehend tricky sentences, can tell us a great deal about the processes people normally use in speaking and understanding language.
Psycholinguistics: the area of linguistics that is concerned with linguistic performance in speech production and comprehension. The human brain:
- Acquires and stores the mental lexicon and grammar.
- Access that linguistic storehouse to speak and understand language in real time.
- We access our lexicon to find the words.
- We use the rules of grammar to construct novel sentences and to produce the sounds that express them.
- We also access the lexicon and grammar to assign a structure and meaning to the sequence of words we hear.