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Central Intelligence Agency from Washington, D.C., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

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Did China force the Soviet Union into Détente?

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Meaning of Détente

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The Era of Détente describes a stage of the Cold War in which the USA and the Soviet Union eased their tensions. The period between 1967 and 1979 was a time of increased trade, cooperation and general diplomatic relations that eventually led to the signing of the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) treaties and the nuclear disarmament of the superpowers.

Détente (fr. relaxation) is the policy of settling conflicts between different states at a diplomatic level.

Meaning of

Protagonists

Richard M. Nixon

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was a statesman, leader of the Communist Party and leader of the Soviet Union for 18 years. During the 1970s Brezhnev attempted to normalize relations between West Germany and the Warsaw Pact and to ease tensions with the United States through détente. At the same time, he saw to it that the Soviet Union’s military-industrial complex was greatly expanded and modernized. Under his leadership, the Soviets achieved parity with the United States in strategic nuclear weapons, and their space program overtook the American one.

Richard Nixon, the 37^th president of the United States and the first president to ever resign, came into office at the beginning of 1969. He improved diplomatic relations between China and the US and was the first president to visit China in 1972 since the rule of the communist goverment marking the peak of the so called ping-pong diplomacy. His biggest achivemant was the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) further developing political relations with the Soviet Union.

Mao Zedong was the communist president of the People's Republic of China from 1943 to 1976. In his early political years, after the civil war between the Guomindang and the communists (1949), he founded the People's Republic of China, which rose to become a world power alongside the USSR and the USA. Mao Zedong led the building of a socialist society and shaped the country's destiny for almost 30 years. He played a central role in the era of détente, as conflicts between China and the Soviet Union made diplomatic relations between the the three superpowers possible in the first place.

Ulrich Kohls, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Oliver F. Atkins, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Zhang Zhenshi, CC BY 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Fear of Nuclear war

Economic Factors and domestic issues

The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 triggered public concern and paranoia about the dangers of nuclear war. The superpowers faced public pressure by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), founded in 1957, and Greenpeace, demanding a halt to further production and proliferation of nuclear weapons. The amount of US-Nuclear Weapons peaked at 30.000 in 1962 and then started to decline.

The Cold War was not only a very costly venture for both superpowers, consuming billions of dollars and rubles, but the funding of Cold War-related activities was widely opposed by the public. Moreover, both superpowers faced domestic economic issues:

USA:

The costly involvement in the Vietnam war and the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries’ (OPEC) oil embargo in 1973 led to the disruption of oil supply, rise of fuel prices and slump of the stock market heavily damaging the US-economy. Furthermore, internal problems, such as the Watergate scandal in 1974 or the Vietnam-war Opposition hindering major military actions, drew the attention away from foreign policy.

Soviet Union:

After a rather rapid growth of the Soviet Union's economy throughout the 1950s and 1960s, it began to stagnate due to the lack of the agricultural sector’s growth. Failing crops led to inflation and a substantial rise of the food price by 50%-100%. This resulted in several failing Soviet Bloc states needing support from the SU. Additionally, Leonid Breznev had to deal with internal Opposition by rewinding liberal reforms implemented by his predecessor Nikita Khruschev.

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Sino Soviet-Split

After the rise of Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong in the late 1940s, Soviet regimes held power over one fifth of the world and ruled over a population of roughly 800 million people. Both Joseph Stalin and Mao acknowledged the need for a friendly cooperation between China and the Soviet Union in order to advance global socialism. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance in 1949, which also provided for a military alliance in the event of an attack on either country. However, their relations were anything but amicable. In private, Mao felt disrespected and undervalued by stalin. Thus, laying the foundation for the worsening of China-Soviet relations. The feeling of disrespect persisted even after Stalin's death in 1953 under the new leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khruschev. His attitude against the west was of a more soft nature leaving Mao with the feeling of ideological betrayal, for Khruschev stating that a “peaceful coexistence” with the US was possible. As tensions began to deteriorate there was a time in which the SU held more nuclear battle plans against China than against the US. US-President Richard Nixon saw the advantage of split soviet regimes and pursued relations with China conducting a visit in 1972. This raised the concern about a Chinese-US alliance in the Soviet Union and therefore showed the importance of a healthy US-Soviet relationship.

The election of the new German Chancellor Willy Brand in 1969 introduced a fundamentally new approach to European foreign policy, the so called Ostpolitik. His ambition was to improve relations between West and East Germany by establishing trade agreements and pursuing active diplomacy. This way, he sought to minimise the defensive stance of Soviet bloc states and to ensure greater communication and cultural exchange.

Sino-Soviet Friendship, 1950, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Stadtarchiv Kiel, CC BY-SA 3.0 DE <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/deed.en>, via Wikimedia Commons

Timeline

1963

1968

1971

1972

Being the cornerstone of global nuclear non-proliferation regime and essential foundation for pursuing nuclear disarmament, the NPTs aim is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and the global not only nuclear disarmament.

The US table tennis player Glenn Cowan missed his bus during the 1971 table tennis championships. He boarded the Chinese bus and got acquainted with the Chinese player Zhuang Zedong. Two days later, the US team received a sensational invitation to visit the Chinese team. The US team accepted and the first visit of US citizens to China in several decades occurred in April 1971.

After a first relaxation of the political tensions between China and the US because of the Ping-pong accident and a secret visit of national Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Nixon visited Beijing in 1972. The President visited China for the first time since founding, even though the US was the fiercest opponent. Because of the impact of that historical meeting really introducing the era of détente, there is now the saying “Only Nixon could go to China”. One result was the common interest of a peaceful solution for the Taiwan issue.

The fatality and severeness of small accidents leading to the Cuban missile crisis led to a rethinking of the communication between the two superpowers. On August 30, the White House issued a statement that a hotline would help “reduce the risk of war occurring by accident or miscalculation”. The hotline was later established and the first message was “The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog’s back 1234567890.”

After several proposals calling for an agreement to ban nuclear tests on 5 August 1963, the Partial Ban Treaty was signed by the United States, Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. Today 108 nations signed this Treaty. All parties have to prohibit, prevent and abstain from conducting nuclear explosions in the atmosphere or any other environment if such explosions cause radioactive debris to land outside the territorial of the State conducting the explosion.

Jim Kuhn, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Robert L. Knudsen, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Marc Baronnet, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Timeline

1972

The Watergate scandal was a series of interlocking political scandals and abuses of authority involving former President Nixon and his administration. These include, for example, the break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington on June 17, 1972, and the subsequent cover-up by White House staff. During the burglary investigation, there was an anonymous source called "Deep Throat" who relayed information about the burglars. The burglars were four individuals formerly involved in Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) activities against Fidel Castro in Cuba, and the fifth was James W. McCord, Jr. who was head of security for the Committee to Re-Elect the President. Today we know that the informant was W. Mark Felt Sr. the FBI Deputy Director who forced Nixon to resign from the presidency, making him the only president ever to resign.

1973

Brezhnev visits Washington

1974

Vladivostok Agreement

1975

Apollo-Soyuz

The 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission, the first international crewed space mission, was a milestone in U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold War. They worked together and docked in space. The joint work on spacecraft and issues such as propulsion was a major advance in relations between the two superpowers.

Also known as the Washington Summit of 1973 or the second Soviet Summit of the Nixon Presidency, was a historic meeting as Soviet general Secretary Brezhnev to continue and work out the follow up of SALT I, SALT II and to strengthen the political and economic relationship between the two superpowers.

On November 24, 1974, U.S. President Ford and Soviet General Secretary Brezhnev signed a joint declaration near Vladivostok on the issue of further restrictions on strategic offensive weapons. The Vladivostok Declaration formed the basis for the later SALT II Treaty.

After a first relaxation of the political tensions between China and the US because of the Ping-pong accident and a secret visit of national Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Nixon visited Beijing in 1972. The President visited China for the first time since founding, even though the US was the fiercest opponent. Because of the impact of that historical meeting really introducing the era of détente, there is now the saying “Only Nixon could go to China”. One result was the common interest of a peaceful solution for the Taiwan issue.

Negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union aimed at limiting the production of strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. The first negotiations began in 1968, and with Nixon's historic visit to Moscow, the first treaties were signed. These are known as SALT I, which stands for Strategic Arms Limitations Talks. By signing the treaty, the leaders committed the two superpowers to two main points. One was the Interim Agreement and Protocol on Strategic Offensive Arms Limitations, and the other was the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty).

Limitation of Strategic Offensive Weapons:

There are two main types of these weapons: land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and sea-based submarine ballistic missiles (SLBMs). As the name suggests, the agreement focuses on the limitation and protocol of these types of ballistic missiles between the parties.

ABM-Treaty:

The 1972 Treaty on Ballistic Missile Protection (SALT I) restricts the use of missile systems that could theoretically destroy intercontinental ballistic missiles launched by the other superpower. One may wonder why ABMs were restricted. ABMs were developed as nuclear weapons to intercept and destroy incoming international ballistic missiles.

Also known as the Washington Summit of 1973 or the second Soviet Summit of the Nixon Presidency, was a historic meeting as Soviet general Secretary Brezhnev to continue and work out the follow up of SALT I, SALT II and to strengthen the political and economic relationship between the two superpowers.

Richard Nixon Presidential Library - Photo Gallery, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Central Intelligence Agency from Washington, D.C., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Ken OHYAMA from FUNABASHI, Japan, CC BY-SA 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

David Hume Kennerly, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

R. Bruneau, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Timeline

1975

1979

The Watergate scandal was a series of interlocking political scandals and abuses of authority involving former President Nixon and his administration. These include, for example, the break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington on June 17, 1972, and the subsequent cover-up by White House staff. During the burglary investigation, there was an anonymous source called "Deep Throat" who relayed information about the burglars. The burglars were four individuals formerly involved in Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) activities against Fidel Castro in Cuba, and the fifth was James W. McCord, Jr. who was head of security for the Committee to Re-Elect the President. Today we know that the informant was W. Mark Felt Sr. the FBI Deputy Director who forced Nixon to resign from the presidency, making him the only president ever to resign.

1979

Invasion of Afghanistan

On December 24, 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. It claimed it would honor the 1978 Soviet-Afghan Friendship Treaty. Afghanistan was crucial to the Soviet Union's access to Asia. For centuries, the country had maintained close relations with a government that was politically close. However, Afghans were not satisfied with the current leader, Taraki. In September 1979, Taraki was assassinated by members of the Communist Party who were dissatisfied with him. In order to reinstate a government closer to his wishes, Russia invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, forestalling U.S. support and the imposition of an anti-Communist government. The U.S. and President Carter responded to this invasion by postponing negotiations on the SALT II treaty and calling off the U.S. ambassador to Moscow. The era of détente and friendly diplomatic and economic relations that had been established between the United States and the Soviet Union under Richard Nixon had ended.

The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, which opened in Helsinki on July 3, 1973, was concluded on August 1, 1975, by the High Representatives of the United States, Canada, most European states, and the Soviet Union. The Summit was driven by the political will to improve and intensify relations in the interest of the people and to contribute to peace, security, justice, and cooperation and to rapprochement among themselves and with other states. The Summit was determined to broaden, deepen and continue the process of détente by recognizing the inviolability of borders in post-World War II Europe, respecting human rights and fundamental freedoms, and promoting cooperation in economic, scientific, humanitarian and other fields.

After SALT I, there was interest in other treaties that focused not only on ABM and SBLM. On June 16, 1979, U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Brezhnev signed the SALT II treaty. This treaty prohibited new missile programs in which each key parameter had to be 5% better than currently deployed missiles. Both sides were forced to limit the development and construction of new strategic missile types. The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in late 1979, an active act of war, meant that the treaty was never ratified. President Carter himself later recommended that the Senate reject the treaty after the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979 and the U.S. found itself reinforced in its global threat perception of communism. The subsequent U.S. administration held on to the treaty until it expired, although an official declaration of non-implementation could have reversed that commitment.

David Hume Kennerly, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Bill Fitz-Patrick, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Kalabaha1969, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Even if Détente did not bring about the end of the Cold War, the diplomatic rapprochements that took place during that period are of great importance today. The superpowers were forced into negotiations, which eventually led to the control of the world's nuclear weapons stockpiles and ensured that no major escalations as they had been in the past were possible anymore. Furthermore, it has shown that even if enormous ideological differences exist between the world powers, a peaceful coexistence is possible.

Results of

read through the following newspaper article from 1980 and then complete the 3 tasks.

Read it here!

https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1980/01/07/113930552.html?pageNumber=6

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Bibliography

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