French & Indian War

A Wilderness Divided

Ohio River Valley In the 1750s, the area west of the Allegheny Mountains was a vast forest. American Indians primarily from three nations – the Seneca, the Lenape (LEN-ah-pay) or Delaware, and the Shawnee – inhabited the upper Ohio River Valley. About 3,000 to 4,000 American Indians were living there. Their economy was based upon hunting, fishing, and agriculture. With enough land they were self-sufficient. They hunted beaver and other animals for trade. A few French and British traders traveled through the area. The American Indians traded furs and food for metal products, cloth, firearms, and other products. The American Indians were excellent warriors and scouts. During battles in the French and Indian War, their presence often made the difference between winning and losing.

Iroquois Confederacy Northeast of the Ohio River Valley, in what is now western New York, was the home of the Haudenosaunee (hou-DE-noh-saw-nee) or Iroquois Confederacy. To form the confederacy, six nations had come together to coordinate their actions, policy, and trade. The confederacy was extremely powerful and often dominated neighboring nations. The Seneca in the Ohio River Valley were members of the Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois Confederacy would send representatives to the Delaware and Shawnee to advise them and let them know the Iroquois position on political matters.

The British Colonies To the east of the Allegheny Mountains lived more than 1 million colonists in the 13 British colonies. They had a strong economy based on farming. Their population was expanding rapidly, both through immigration and population growth. Although they had no settlers in the Ohio River Valley in 1750, the British colonies claimed the land. Virginia, in fact, claimed this land and all the lands as far west as the “islands of California.” Although their economy did not depend on it, many Pennsylvania and Virginia traders traveled to the Ohio River Valley to trade. They did not have river access to the valley, and there were no roads for wagons. To get their goods across the mountains they used packhorses. The British colonists generally did not mix with the American Indian societies. However, the two cultures needed to deal with each other. They needed people who could interpret the languages and also understand the different cultural customs and manners. The people who did this were called “Go Betweens.” They were more than translators, they were also diplomats.

New France New France had three colonies: Canada (along the St. Lawrence River), the Illinois country (the mid-Mississippi Valley), and Louisiana (New Orleans and west of the Mississippi). There were about 70,000 colonists throughout the French settlements. Their economy was based on trade with the American Indians. It was a weak economic system, and the colonies were not self-sustaining. They needed to purchase food from the Indians or import it. The French colonists had a much different relationship with the American Indians than the British did. They viewed the Indians as trade partners and established personal relationships with the nations they traded with. They became members of the native communities and often inter-married and had children. Rivers and waterways were the best means of transportation through the interior of the continent. The French had a series of forts and trading posts along their main travel and trading route, west of the Ohio River Valley. The Ohio River Valley was an alternate transportation route. Even though the French did not have trading posts or settlements in the Ohio River Valley, they claimed the land as theirs.

"Far Indians" Beyond the Ohio River Valley were the nations around the Great Lakes. These nations were traditionally French allies. The French called these nations the “far Indians” and often called on these warriors to assist them in defending their colony. The French also relied on the American Indian nations along the St. Lawrence River for assistance.

The Wars Before the French and Indian WarThe War of the Grand Alliance was fought between 1689-97, after Louis XIV of France invaded the lands east of France, a remnant of the Holy Roman Empire, and stimulated emigration of German-speaking residents of the Palatinate to America in the process. The American portion of the conflicts between France and England (allied with Spain and the Netherlands, home of King William III before he was chosen to replace James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688) was known as King William's War. The English failed in an attempt to capture Quebec, and most of King William's War consisted of skirmishes on the western frontiers of the colonies. The Treaty of Ryswick that technically ended the war created only a pause in the fighting. After Charles II of Spain died without having any children, and a complicated set of diplomatic schemes failed to satisfy the desires of the English, Dutch, French, Austrian, and Spanish rulers for control of Spain and its territories, the War of Spanish Succession erupted in Europe in 1701. The fighting in North America between the French and the English was referred to as Queen Anne's War, starting "officially" in 1702. The French and their Indian allies attacked Deerfield (Massachusetts) in 1704, the same year the Duke of Marlborough won the battle of Blenheim. Before the Peace of Utrecht was signed until 1713, the English captured the fur forts on Hudson Bay as well as Newfoundland in North America, but were unable to capture Quebec and expel the French from North America. The War of Jenkins Ear started in 1739, purportedly over an incident in 1731. The Spanish had seized Captain Robert Jenkins' ship, the Rebecca, in 1731 for smuggling with their colonies in the Caribbean. The Spanish cut off the captain's ear - and in 1738, he displayed the dried ear to Parliament. Though the members of Parliament may have been upset at the sight of the dried ear, the basic cause of the war was competition for wealth and power between the two nation states. The fighting was not in North America, though the Spanish still controlled Florida - there was little wealth concentrated there, and the English were just starting to settle the lands south of Charleston. (The colony of Georgia was chartered in 1732.) Instead, the English attacked the Spanish stronghold of Cartagena, on the coast of Columbia. This was the first war in which the colonies were requested to provide troops. Former Governor Spotswood of Virginia was supposed to lead the English expedition, but died in 1740 while assembling colonial troops in Annapolis. Lawrence Washington served in the Caribbean under Admiral Vernon, and later named Mount Vernon in his honor. The conflict in America merged with the War of Austrian Succession, or King George's War. In Europe, King George II defeated the French at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, but there was little open fighting between the French and the English on the North American continent. The War of Austrian Succession ended technically with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.

The Ohio River Valley Indians wanted to maintain their land, their lifestyle, and control of their future. They sought to trade with the Europeans but prevent settlement. By this time the American Indians depended on European goods. Guns, gunpowder, knives, lead for musket balls, rum, and cloth were a few of the items they did not want to live without. They were excellent hunters and were able to kill the game and beavers the Europeans sought. Most of the Shawnee and Delaware living in the Ohio River Valley had only started living there in the 1720s. They had moved to the region from their homes in eastern Pennsylvania. As the British colonists settled that land, the Indians moved west. The Shawnee and Delaware in the Ohio River Valley were under the political influence of the Iroquois Confederacy. They didn’t like this and wanted to speak for themselves. The Iroquois Confederacy wanted to maintain control of the Ohio River Valley to improve its negotiating position with the French and British.

French Trade Economy The French depended on the Indian trade as the basis of their economy. They were upset when Pennsylvania and Virginia started trading with the Ohio River Valley Indians. This area was on the eastern edge of their main trading routes, and they did not want to lose control of any of the trade. Also, they used the Ohio River Valley and its river systems as a transportation route. They wanted their traders, priests, and soldiers to be able to travel freely through the region. The French were not interested in settling the area. However, they were determined to maintain authority over it.

Colonist Expansion By the 1750s British colonial settlement had reached the eastern base of the Allegheny Mountains. They saw wealth and opportunity in the vast lands west of the mountains. Many settlers hoped to own their own property. Wealthy colonists sought land grants in the hopes of securing lands that they could sell to settlers at a profit – land speculation. However, to get land speculation profits they needed more land, and the Ohio River Valley looked like a perfect place to get it. The British colonial traders involved with Indian fur trade were already making money in the region. None of these colonists wanted to see the French control the Ohio River Valley. The British saw many opportunities, and they did not intend to lose them to their enemies, the French.

Interaction and Alliances The goals and economies of the three nations also affected how they viewed and interacted with each other. The British emphasis on farming and owning land often put them in competition with the American Indians. The French were more likely to view the Indians as allies since their economy depended so heavily on the Indian trade. The preservation of trade was important to the American Indian nations and often influenced which alliances they made.

France Forces Out England Not surprisingly, the French refused to leave. While Washington made the arduous 900 mile winter trip from Williamsburg to Fort LeBoeuf and back again, he noted that the point of land at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela (meh-NON-gah-HAY-lah) Rivers, called the “Forks of the Ohio,” would be an excellent place for a fort. In the spring of 1754 the French had a post at Venango, near where French Creek and the Allegheny River meet. At the same time the British started to build a fort at the Forks of the Ohio. They had just hung the gate when 360 French canoes and over 500 French troops, with eight cannons, appeared. The British commander, Ensign Edward Ward, quickly realized that he was badly outnumbered. He and his soldiers left the fort to the French, who began building a much stronger fortification that they named Fort Duquesne.

France Claims Land In 1749 the French were becoming concerned with the Pennsylvania and Virginia traders in the Ohio River Valley. That summer they sent an expedition of 247 men under the command of Captain Pierre-Joseph Céloron (SEL-or-ohn) de Blainville* down the Ohio River. Céloron buried lead plates in the ground stating the French claim to the land. “In the year of 1749, of the reign of Louis the 15th, King of France, we Céloron, commander of a detachment sent by Monsieur the Marquis de la Gallissonieré, Governor General of New France, to reestablish tranquility in some Indian villages in these provinces, have buried this plate at the mouth of the River Chinodahichiltha on the 18th of August near the River Ohio, otherwise Beautiful River, as a monument of the renewal of the possession we have taken of the said River Ohio, and of all those which empty into it, and of all the lands on both sides as far as the sources of said rivers, as enjoyed or ought to have been enjoyed by the kings of France preceding, and as they have there maintained themselves by arms and by treaties, especially those of Ryswick, Utrecht, and Aix la Chapelle.” He made speeches to the Ohio River Valley Indians warning them not to trade with the British and expelled the traders he found. In Logstown (near present day Ambridge, Pennsylvania) he found 10 British traders with 50 packhorses and 150 packs of fur. When he returned to Canada he had a bleak report. The Ohio River Valley Indians “are very badly disposed towards the French.” In order to keep the valley he recommended that the French build a fortified military route through the area.

The English Send George Washington Meanwhile, Robert Dinwiddie (DIN-wid-dee), the Governor of Virginia, was granting land in the Ohio River Valley to citizens of his colony. In 1753, he received instructions from the King of England “for erecting forts within the king’s own territory.” Dinwiddie was very upset about all the French activity in the Ohio River Valley. He sent a young volunteer, George Washington, to deliver a letter to the French demanding that they leave the region.

Retreat

Surrender

Skirmish

Retaliation

How Did it Start?

On the night of May 27, 1754, Washington and 40 soldiers began a dark and wet overnight march. It was morning before they arrived at the Half King’s camp. Together they decided to surround the French. Unaware, the French under the command of Ensign Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville* (joo-MON-vil) were just waking up. A French soldier spotted the British and yelled. They all ran for their muskets. A shot was fired. Then Washington ordered his troops to fire. The French were in a bad position at the bottom of a ravine. They tried to escape down the ravine but met the Half King and his warriors. They came back and surrendered.

The whole skirmish lasted only 15 minutes. One Frenchman escaped and 21 were captured. Jumonville lay wounded and 12 others were dead. The Half King approached the wounded Jumonville and said, “Thou art not yet dead, my father.” Then he raised his tomahawk and killed him. It was both a horrifying and a symbolic act. To the Half King and his people Jumonville represented the French in the Ohio River Valley and his death clearly showed the Half King’s desire to have them leave. These were the first shots of what was to become the French and Indian War. Shortly after the incident, the British historian Horace Walpole noted, “The volley fired by a young Virginian in the backwoods of America set the world on fire.”

This skirmish invited retaliation from the French and their American Indian allies. Washington returned to the Great Meadows where his troops built a small fort they named Fort Necessity. Washington was joined by more troops bringing the total number of British to nearly 400. On July 3, 1754, about 600 French and 100 of their American Indian allies arrived in the Great Meadows just beyond Washington’s fort. Jumonville’s brother Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers* (duh VIL-yay) commanded the French army. As night approached the British were in a bad position. They had been fighting all day and had many dead and wounded. The French called and asked if they would like to negotiate a surrender. Realizing their poor situation, the British agreed to negotiate.

When Washington and his troops departed, the French again controlled the land west of the Allegheny Mountains. Upon return Washington would be removed from command for his loss of Fort Necessity and would only return as a volunteer soldier in the Virginia Militia. The Ohio River Valley Indians who felt more comfortable dealing with the British than the French moved from the area. Many of them moved east to central Pennsylvania.

Washington was sent to the Ohio River Valley with the Virginia militia. He and his troops were told to take the “Lands on the Ohio; & the Waters thereof.” Washington learned that the French were in control of the Forks of the Ohio and the fort the British had built there. Washington stopped to rest his men and horses in an open meadow called the Great Meadows. While camped in the meadow, Washington received a message from Tanaghrisson* (tan-ah-GRIS-suhn). Tanaghrisson was a Seneca sent by the Iroquois Confederacy to govern the Delaware and Iroquois in the Ohio River Valley. His position was given the title “the Half King.” The Half King sided with the British. His message to Washington stated that there was a band of French soldiers camped only a few miles from the Great Meadows.

support

Alienation

Ben's rescue

French win

France Fights Back

Braddock had trouble from the start locating horses and wagons to move the supplies for his army. Luckily, Benjamin Franklin* came to the rescue. He convinced farmers to rent their wagons and horses to Braddock. One hundred and fifty wagons and 259 packhorses arrived at Braddock’s camp just when they were needed most.

Braddock managed to anger and alienate almost all of the American Indians who had come to participate as allies. Shingas* (SHIN-gas), the leader of the Ohio River Valley Delaware, was so angry he left and immediately joined the French.

Eight miles east of the fort the French and British armies spotted each other. Both sides were surprised and scrambled to get organized for the battle. The American Indians under the command of Ensign Charles-Michel Mouet de Langlade* (moo-ay duh LON-glayd) quickly took the high ground and were able to dominate the battle. The British suffered a terrible defeat. Two-thirds of the British troops and most of the officers were killed or wounded. Braddock received a serious wound before the British army retreated. Four days later, Braddock died of his wounds.

As a result of Braddock’s defeat, many Ohio River Valley Indians decided to side with the French. For the next few years Fort Duquesne became the starting point for hundreds of French and Indian raids along the Pennsylvania and Virginia frontier.

The French at Fort Duquesne were well informed by their American Indian scouts of Braddock’s progress. There were hundreds of Indians around Fort Duquesne, mostly warriors from the Great Lakes region. They thought Braddock’s army was too large and were unwilling to join the French. On the morning of July 9, Captain Daniel-Hyacinthe-Marie Lienard de Beaujeu* (BOH-joh) did the impossible. He convinced the American Indians to join the French. That morning 254 French and 637 Indians left Fort Duquesne. Over two- thirds of the army was made up of Indians.

Early the next year, Major General Edward Braddock* arrived to take command of all the British forces in North America. Braddock invited George Washington to join him as a volunteer. Washington eagerly accepted and went along as his aide. Braddock would personally command the troops that set out to capture the Forks of the Ohio.

Duquesne

Treaties

William pitt

french fail

England Regains

In 1758, policy changes helped the British. William Pitt, Secretary of State in Britain, recalled Lord Loudoun and sent a new commander-in-chief. He repealed unpopular policies and enacted some that were very advantageous to the colonies. The colonies reacted with enthusiastic support of the war. For the first time colonial manpower and money were wholeheartedly put into the war. Pitt also sent many more troops to the colonies. That year Pitt ordered a three-pronged attack on French strongholds. General Jeffery Amherst was to attack the fortress at Louisbourg, which guarded the St. Lawrence River. In July, Amherst captured Louisbourg, which opened the St. Lawrence River and a water route to Canada.

An important conference was taking place in Easton, Pennsylvania. Representatives from the Iroquois Confederacy, the Shawnee, and the Delaware met to make peace with the British. The British made several promises to the American Indians in return for not fighting with the French. The treaty they signed promised that the British would prevent settlement on all of the lands west of the Allegheny Mountains after the war. The British also committed to regulating the rum trade and eliminating forts on Indian lands. The treaty was signed in October. “Go Betweens” brought news of the treaty to the Ohio River Valley Indian towns. This was bad news for the French.

The French victory at Fort William Henry in 1757 ended in disaster for all. Montcalm had 1,800 American Indians with him. They fought with the French without pay in the hope of victory. Then they would get their compensation by taking captives, booty, and scalps. Many Indians had traveled hundreds of miles to participate in the battle. When the British surrendered Fort William Henry, Montcalm did not consult his Indian allies when he drew up the surrender terms. The surrender terms denied the warriors the plunder they had fought for. The day after the surrender the American Indians decided to take what they saw as their due and on August 10 captured or killed hundreds of British, most of them colonists. The American Indians unknowingly took captives and clothing infected with smallpox. That winter many nations suffered heavy losses due to the disease. The Indian attack on the British colonists after the surrender intensified the colonists’ hate for the French and their Indian allies. Although the surrender was a victory for the French, it was also a turning point. After the way the American Indians were treated by the French at Fort William Henry, many of them decided not to fight with the French again. The French were never able to ask for Indian assistance to the extent they had before. Loss of their American Indian allies was one of the factors that contributed to turning the tide of war against the French.

On November 12, near Loyalhanna, Washington captured a soldier from Fort Duquesne. The soldier confessed that the French were very weak. Forbes decided to continue his campaign against Fort Duquesne. The French were in a bad position. They could no longer count on help from the American Indians, and with the fall of Fort Frontenac, they had very few supplies. They decided to abandon Fort Duquesne. The French destroyed the fort before they left. Forbes occupied the ruined fort on November 25.

The new military commander for the French colonies, Major General Louis- Joseph de Montcalm* (mon-KALHM) arrived in Canada in May of 1756. He was reluctant to use the American Indians to their full advantage and was disdainful of the Canadians. Although it took several years, his attitudes and actions eventually affected France’s success. In 1756, while the French were still successfully using their American Indian allies, the army continued to be victorious in North America.

The British commander-in-chief, Lord Loudoun, did not understand the American colonists. When he made requests of colonial governors, they sent the requests through their assemblies. Often the assemblies did not comply, and Lord Loudoun would threaten to use force against the colonies. Some colonists started to see Lord Loudoun as being as much of a threat to their freedom as the French and American Indians. Lord Loudoun’s actions created resentment and resistance. Resentment of his policies did not help the British war effort.

It was not until May 1756, that Britain officially declared war on France and the two countries began fighting in Europe. French and British colonies in the West Indies, India, and Africa were also drawn into the conflict. In Europe the war became known as the Seven Years War. That same year both French and British colonies got new commanders.

war ends

Quebec Falls

spain joins

New France Falls

The opening of the St. Lawrence River allowed the British to sail to Quebec. All summer British Major General James Wolfe was unsuccessful in attacking the city situated on the top of a cliff. Finally in September, under the cover of darkness, Wolfe used a small footpath to get his troops up the cliff and onto a flat field outside the city. Wolfe’s troops fought the French under the command of General Montcalm and won. The British took control of Quebec. Both generals died from wounds they received during the battle. The French colonial government moved to Montreal.

The destruction of the French fleet in November 1759 was the final blow for the French. Without supplies the French army could not retake Quebec. In 1760 the British captured Montreal. The war between France and England ended in North America.

After the fall of Montreal, the warfare continued in other parts of the world. Spain entered the war when the British attacked and captured Havana, Cuba.

In 1759, the British continued their success in battle. The Iroquois Confederacy, which had remained politically neutral until this point, decided to side with the British. During the summer, the British captured Fort Niagara, Fort Ticonderoga, and Crown Point.

In 1759, the British continued their success in battle. The Iroquois Confederacy, which had remained politically neutral until this point, decided to side with the British. During the summer, the British captured Fort Niagara, Fort Ticonderoga, and Crown Point. The opening of the St. Lawrence River allowed the British to sail to Quebec.

Treaty of Paris

France gave the British all of its land in North America east of the Mississippi River other than the city of New Orleans.

In 1759 the British began construction of Fort Pitt on the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The American Indians became concerned. The Treaty of Easton promised to eliminate forts on Indian land – yet this fort was much larger than a trading post.It was 10 times larger than Fort Duquesne. The barracks could shelter hundreds of men. Delaware Chief Pisquetomen wanted to know what “ye General meant by coming here with a great army.”

The 1763 Treaty of Paris formally ended the war. France gave the British all of its land in North America east of the Mississippi River other than the city of New Orleans.

The French land west of the Mississippi, called Louisiana, was given to Spain.

The Spanish gave Florida to Britain and the British returned Havana. There were several other small exchanges and agreements. The end result was thatthe French no longer had territory in North America.

With the French gone, settlers began to move over the Allegheny Mountains.As always, they saw opportunity for profit and advancement in the Ohio River Valley. It was becoming clear the promises of the Treaty of Easton were not to be honored. In the fall of 1761 commander-in-chief Jeffery Amherst made some well- intentioned but ignorant changes to the British–American Indian trade policies. The long-standing practice of gift giving was curtailed. Traders were forbidden from trading in the American Indian villages. This forced the Indians, who were often without horses, to carry their pelts into forts in small quantities. The traders were also required to limit the sale of lead and powder to five pounds at a time. This meant that the American Indians could not effectively carry out their fall and winter hunts and thus were unable to provide for their families and towns. Additionally, the new reforms forbade the sale of rum and liquor to the Indians, substances that had become part of their culture. These changes caused suffering and hardship in American Indian villages across the region. Many nations saw the benefits of allying with each other against their common enemy, the British, who were threatening their way of life.

The British thought the colonists should help pay for the cost of their own protection. Furthermore, the French and Indian War had cost the British treasury £70,000,000 and doubled their national debt to £140,000,000. Compared to this staggering sum, the colonists' debts were extremely light, as was their tax burden.